Greek architecture is a cornerstone of Western architectural history, renowned for its enduring influence and timeless aesthetic principles. Flourishing from the 8th century BCE (900 BCE) to the 1st century CE, Greek architecture encompassed a variety of styles and structures that played a pivotal role in shaping the architectural vocabulary of subsequent civilizations.
What is Greek Architecture
Greek architecture pertains to the architectural styles and structures of ancient Greece. It is known for its emphasis on proportion, harmony, and the use of classical orders (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian). Notable features include temples with colonnaded porticos, theaters, and civic buildings. The Parthenon in Athens, the Theater of Epidaurus, and the Temple of Olympian Zeus exemplify Greek architectural achievements. The Greeks also introduced the concept of the “polis” (city-state), influencing urban planning principles in the classical world.
Span of Greek Architecture
Greek architecture spans several centuries mainly from 900 BCE to 1st century CE.
History/Classification of Greek Periods
Ancient Greece is subdivided into three important periods based on pottery styles and political events.
- Archaic Period (800-490BC)
- In this period Greek alphabet developed and Greek literature was composed.
- Artists made free-standing sculptures in this period. As a result, there was a development of monumental sculpture.
- Temples typically were made of mud and brick.
- The Doric and Ionic orders began to develop their form.
- Classical Period (490-323 BC)
- Considered as the zenith of Greek Architecture.
- Use of stone and marble. (Stone architecture emerged)
- There was a refinement in Ionic and Doric orders.
- An example of the standing structure during this period – the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens,
- Hellenistic Period (323-146 BC)
- This period started after the death of Alexander in 323 BC.
- Greek culture spread across vast areas where the Hellenistic period developed.
- Corinthian order developed.
- Ends with the Roman conquest.
Factors Influencing Greek Architecture
Geographical Factors
As seen on the map, Greece is surrounded on three sides by the sea and on the fourth side by the land. Since it had natural harbors, it was convenient for the development of trade. Due to the rugged terrain and absence of roads, it was difficult for people to connect in the country until the Roman period. However, the presence of many nearby islands proved to be an inviting factor, resulting in a resilient and fearless population. These islands made a pathway for the growth of colonization.
Image source: Map of Archaic Greece (Illustration) – World History Encyclopedia
Geological Factors
The mainland of Greece was rocky with rugged mountain ranges. Because of the rocky terrain – stone, and mainly marble, was the principal mineral found in various parts of Greece. Marble, known for its purity of line and refinement, served as a building material. Limestone was also readily available. In addition to the stone, there was an abundance of potter’s clay near the islands. It was utilized not just for pottery but also for roof tiles and building decorations. The Aegean and Mediterranean seas provided a means of communication and trade with other places.
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Climatic Factors
The climate of Greece had a Mediterranean type of climate with blistering sun, cold winter, and heavy rains. This optimal climate encouraged outdoor activities where architecture developed in coordination with the outdoors. Hence, people constructed temples on hilltops and theaters on sloping lands with a vision to create spaces for gatherings. To protect the structures from intense heat and rainfall, Greek architects constructed colonnades, arcades, and courtyards. Moreover, the presence of a clear and bright sky (both the sky and sea vividly blue) marked the structures with detailed precision.
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Religious Factors
In Greek religion, the focus was primarily on nature worship, with the natural elements being imagined as gods with human-like bodies and behavior. Their most significant deities were Zeus (Supreme God), Hera( Goddess of Mariage), Athena (Goddess of wisdom), etc and many other. Previously, worship was in the open community for statues, and later raised the need for structures to house these statues. This requirement led to the development of temples.
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Social and Political
Ancient Greece has a social system of levels –
- Upper class: Wealthy men involved in trading and spent time in politics, philosophy, leisure, etc.
- Middle class: Professional workers like merchants, contractors, craftsmen, and managers.
- Lower class: freed slaves
- Slaves: war prisoners, criminals, and course slaves.
National games and religious festivals kept the people of Greece united. Music, drama, and fine arts also has its significance. Their love for these activities led to the development of theatres, temples, and other structures.
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Characteristics of Greek Architecture
- Balance, symmetry, and sense of proportion
- Materials – sun-dried bricks, stone masonry, wooden roofs
- Sculptures and artistic characters.
- Human figures as decorative motifs
- Richly decorated palaces.
- Massive Fortifications
- Stone built temples
- Paintings with floral and motifs of sea life.
- Belief in the worship of Nature
- Decorating cornices and Pediments
- Colonnades surrounding courtyards
Architectural Features of Greek Architecture
Ancient Greek architecture – its temples, palaces, and other buildings is majorly defined by its style of columns or the classical orders.
Columns/Classical Orders
The design and architecture of the columns were greatly influenced by Egyptian Architecture. The Greeks designed the columns with specific design principles that were symmetric, balanced, proportionate, and clear in a certain order. They divided the column styles into three different orders which reflect the names of their origin – Ionic order, Doric order, and Corinthian order. Roman architectural writer “Vitruvius” named them “classical orders” or “Orders of Architecture”. It’s structure, usage, proportion, and decoration were given equal importance.
The Doric order is known for its distinct capital. The capital includes an echinus, which is a circular cushion-like element that sits on top of the column. From there, the abacus, a square platform, supports the lintels.
The Ionic order is easily recognized by its capital, which has a curved echinus similar to that of the Doric order. However, the Ionic capital is decorated with stylized ornament and has a horizontal band that scrolls under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to those of the nautilus shell or ram’s horn.
The Corinthian order is distinguished by ornate capitals. It was shaped like a large bell-shaped mixing bowl called a “krater”. The capital was decorated with a double row of leaves from the acanthus plant. Above the leaves, there were voluted tendrils supporting the corners of the abacus. The abacus was not perfectly square and splayed above the tendrils.
- Ionic Columns
- Volutes are located at the base and height of the columns. Capitals featured two swirling volutes. The shafts of the columns can be fluted ( having vertical grooves or flutes) or plain.
- The base is designed as stacked disks.
- Typically used for upper levels.
- Corinthian columns
- The design and proportions give a sense of height.
- The capital is adorned with flowers and leaves which protrude outside.
- The shaft of the columns is fluted or grooved.
- Typically used for the upper levels.
- Doric columns
- The shafts of columns were grooved and wider at the bottom for structural support.
- Thicker than other two-column styles
- Typically used in lower levels in multi-story buildings as they were thicker.
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- Entablature and Pediment
- The columns (of temples and other structures of Greek architecture) were supported by Entablature and Pediment.
- Entablature: The horizontal structure is supported by columns, consisting of three main parts: the architrave (bottom), frieze (middle, often decorated with reliefs or sculptures), and cornice (top).
- Pediment: The entablature supports the triangular pediment. It is often adorned by sculptures and reliefs.
- Masonry and Walls
- Walls were constructed using different materials – limestone, marble, and mudbrick. They were often load-bearing and supported the entire structure.
- Every temple was rested on a masonry platform of three steps. On the upper step, the columns and masonry walls were resting. The temple walls were constructed using ashlar masonry.
- Openings
- The door and window openings were simple rectangular shapes supported by a stone lintel. Few of the openings were narrowed at the top. Windows and small and only used for ventilation. Instead of the windows, the roof was provided with openings to lit the temples.
- Roof
- The roofs of early Greek buildings were covered with thatch, while with the increase of stone ceramic roof tiles came into existence.
- Ramps
- In some cases, ramps were incorporated into Greek architecture to facilitate access to elevated structures, such as temples.
Architecture and Building Types of Greek Architecture
Greek City Planning/Urban Planning
The city planning of Greece was characterized by a combination of political, religious, and geographical factors. The Greeks also introduced the concept of the “polis” (city-state), influencing urban planning principles in the classical world. Here are some key features of Greek city planning:
- Acropolis: The acropolis was a prominent elevated area within the city, typically crowned with temples and other sacred structures.
- Agora: The agora was the central marketplace and civic center of the city. It served as a hub for economic, social, and political activities.
- Stoa: Stoas are long buildings opened by colonnades and they provide shelters for artisans. Surrounding the agora, you would find stoas, temples, and administrative buildings.
- Symmetry and Proportion: Greek architecture and city planning were guided by principles of symmetry and proportion. Buildings were often designed with mathematical precision and an appreciation for aesthetic balance.
- Grid-layout streets: The streets were laid in orthogonal grid patterns.
Temples
The temples were dedicated to Greek Gods and served as symbols of civic pride and identity. Most of the temples were raised on high platforms so that the grandeur, proportions, aesthetic values, and effects of light could be viewed from different angles. They were rectangular with lengths approximately twice the width.
The main architectural features were the three classical orders, pediment, Entablature, and a cella. Some temples were surrounded by a colonnade, creating a peristyle. This provided a covered walkway around the temple.
Image source: Wikipedia
Houses/Domestic Buildings
The earliest domestic buildings were of several distinct types and were simple structures with two rooms, an open porch, and a gable. They were constructed with stones, sun-dried bricks, clay or plaster, fibrous materials- straw, seaweed, and tiles for roofs.
Smaller houses – wide passages or “pastas” were present in the center of the houses admitting light and air into the house that covered the whole length of the house.
Larger houses – Peristyle(courtyards) were in the center of the house and the other rooms surrounding it.
Image source: Wikipedia.org
Public Buildings
The public buildings of Greek architecture included Stoas, council houses, open-air theaters, and other buildings.
- Stoa: Stoas are long buildings opened by colonnades and they provide shelters for artisans.
- Council houses: Council houses, or Bouleuteria, were structures where city councils (Boule) met to discuss political matters.
- Open-air theaters: Open-air theaters were large, semicircular structures built into hillsides, featuring a tiered seating arrangement around a central performance area.
Marvelous Examples of Greek Architecture
Greek Cities
The City of Athens and Acropolis
The Acropolis of Athens is a prominent iconic example of Greek city planning and architecture. It is a fortified area, located on a rocky outcrop overlooking the city of Athens. It includes several ancient buildings of historical significance. One of the prominent ones is the Parthenon. Also, it contains other buildings such as Propylaia (monumental ceremonial gateway), Erechtheion (Temple dedicated to goddess Athena), and Temple of Athena Nike. In addition to these, there were sanctuaries, stoas, theatres, and fountains.
The architecture of the Acropolis reflects the high achievements of classical Greek architecture, with a focus on balance, proportion, and the integration of sculpture and architectural elements to convey a sense of harmony and beauty. It is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.
City of Priene
Priene is an ancient Greek city, north of Miltoes which was designed by the urban planner, Hippodamus of Miletus in 450 BCE. The site at Miletos was a flat peninsula that extended into the sea at the mouth of the Meander River. It had two deep inlets that formed excellent harbors. The city was strategically located on a slope, allowing for the integration of buildings with the natural topography. This not only added to the aesthetic appeal but also facilitated effective drainage and water management.
Hippodamus planned the city based on an orthogonal grid with the direction towards the peninsula and divided the city into three zones – residential quarters in the north and south with an agora at the center running from one harbor to another.
Temples of Greek Architecture
Parthenon, Acropolis
Ancient Greek Architecture is notable for temples, of which the Parthenon (447-432 BCE) stands as a fine example. It is recognized as a special achievement by the Greeks. Not only has it become a remarkable temple, welcoming the city but also a symbol of clarity and precision of ancient Greek architecture. Dedicated to Athena Parthenos – goddess of war and wisdom, Parthenon, is the largest building of Ancient Greek Architecture and is exceptional for its large size, huge columns, and proportion.
The Parthenon is framed on all four sides by columns supported by a pedimented portico. The inner room of the temple is divided into two parts and surrounded by columns. These columns support a decorative frieze. The rows of columns around the temple are of the Doric style and have a slight curve in the shaft to make them appear straight. The columns also lean inwards and are larger at the corners where they are closer together. The stylobate is a domed pedestal that slopes downwards along with the entablature.
Erechtheion (Temple of Athena Polias)
This ancient Greek temple (406 BCE) is located on the northern side of the Acropolis, dedicated to the goddess Athena. It is quite known for caryatids – six female sculptures standing in place of columns.
Externally, the temple is an Ionic hexastyle prostyle pronaos which faces east. The hexastyle arrangement of ionic columns is a distinctive feature of the temple’s facade. With six columns across the front, it creates a sense of balance and harmony. The pronaos of Greek architecture refers to the porch or vestibule that precedes the main entrance of a temple. By positioning it externally, the pronaos serve as an inviting entryway, drawing the viewer’s attention and creating a sense of anticipation for what lies ahead.
Temple of Hephaestus
Temple of Hephaestus (449-415 BCE), dedicated to the Greek God Hephaestus, is known for its best-preserved structures of Greek edifices. Located on the top of Agoraios Kolonos hill, it is an example of a Doric peripteral building. Built with marble, the temple is a rectangular structure (31.78 x 13.71m) with thirteen columns along the longer side and six columns along the shorter side. It has an entrance called the pronaos, a cella in the center that houses cult images, and a rear room/inner shrine known as opisthodomas.
Temple of Olympian Zeus
The temple of Olympian, dedicated to the King of all Gods – Zeus was once a large structure of Greek architecture with only fifteen Corinthian columns surviving. Located in Agrigento, Sicily, it was a rectangular structure of 100mx50m with a height of 20m. This temple is an excellent example of the Corinthian order, characterized by its more ornate and decorative capitals. The columns are fluted, and the capitals are adorned with acanthus leaves.
Public Buildings of Greek Architecture
Stoa of Attalos
The Stoa (covered walkway) of Attolas, located in the Agora of Athens, was built and named after King Attolas from 159 BC to 138 BC. It was reconstructed in 1956 and houses a museum of ancient Agora. Built with marble and limestone, the stoa was rectangular in plan measured 115x20m, and had two storeys. It was also a typical example of a public building in Greek architecture that skillfully made use of different orders – The Doric order for the exterior collonade and the Ionic order for the interior colonnade.
Bouleuterion of Priene
Bouleuterion, also known as the council house was an important civic building in the Greek city. It was a covered meeting place for the democratically elected councils of the city. The boule generally was a covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker’s well in which an altar was placed.
Epidaurus Theatre
Located in the Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidaurus, on the Peloponnesian Peninsula in Greece, The Epidaurus theater was built around 340 BCE, during the Classical period of ancient Greece. It is a masterpiece of ancient Greek architecture and design with a circular orchestra (the performance space), a stage building (skene), and a large auditorium. With an accommodation of around 13,000 to 14,000 spectators, the design of the theater allows for perfect sound transmission, enabling the audience to hear performances even at a whisper from the stage.
The archaeological site of Epidaurus, including the theater, is designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Conclusion
What makes Greek architecture timeless is not just its aesthetic appeal but the enduring principles that underlie its creation. The emphasis on proportion, symmetry, and balance continues to inform architectural discourse. Greek architecture is a living testament to the human spirit’s ability to create enduring beauty. Its legacy lives on in the columns and arches of modern buildings, in the proportionate facades that grace city squares, and in the hearts of architects who continue to be captivated by the allure of an ancient art form.
See also
Egyptian Architecture – https://thearchspace.com/ancient-egyptian-architecture/
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