Roman Architecture continued and adopted classical Greek Architecture and established it as a distinctive architectural style. All the monuments of this style exhibit Roman greatness, showing the great engineering and constructive ability combined with the use of available materials to attain the best possible results. It adopted the columnar and trebeated style of the Greek period and joined it to the arch, vault, and dome. The structures were composed of proportional relationships and clear connections.
What is Roman Architecture
Roman architecture features the architectural styles and structures developed by the ancient Romans, spanning from the Roman Republic to the Byzantine Empire. It is known for its engineering prowess, monumental structures, and adoption of arches, vaults, and domes. Notable examples include amphitheaters like the Colosseum, aqueducts, basilicas, and triumphal arches. Roman architecture reflects a pragmatic approach to design and a focus on grand public works.
Roman architecture shapes spaces.
—H. Kähler, The Art of Rome and Her Empire
Span of Roman Architecture
Roman architecture spans several centuries mainly from 509 BCE to the 4th century AD.
History/Classification of Roman Periods
Roman history is divided into three distinct phases:
- Rule of the early Kings
- The Republic
- The Empire
Factors Affecting Roman Architecture
Geographical
Even though the Italian peninsula is long and narrow, it is not broken into bays or natural harbors like the peninsula of Greece. The coastline of Italy has fewer islands, and has mountains, like the Apennines that stretch from one end of the peninsula to the other. Also, the land is not fragmented into valleys like most of Greece. The central position of Italy in the Mediterranean Sea helped to spread Roman Art & civilization to the rest of Europe, West Asia & North Africa. The Roman power grew by gradually absorbing small states.
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Geological
The Geological Formation of Italy is different from Greece. In Greece, marble is the main and almost the only building material used. However in Italy – marble, terracotta, stone, and brick were largely used. Travertine, Tufa, Pozzolona, sand, and gravel were available abundantly in Rome. Out of all the materials available, concrete was the most used and favorite material.
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Climate
Itlay had a varied climate. The north of Italy has a temperate climate, central Italy has of Mediterranean climate, while the south has a tropical climate. This has resulted in varied architectural features and elements that resulted in the unique Roman architecture of the ancient period.
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Religion
The worship of Gods came eventually as state policy. Ancient Rome was a place of heathen religion. Gradually state policies and officialism embraced temple architecture. Romans unlike the Greeks were not religious and their religion was adopted from the Greeks. This made Roman architecture to be more civic. Their most significant deities were Jupiter (Zeus) (Supreme God), Hera (Goddess of Mariage), Athena (Goddess of wisdom), etc, and many others.
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Social and Political
The government in ancient Italy was composed of towns that formed leagues. In Rome, the system changed from a monarchy to a republic around 500 BC, replacing the rule of kings with assemblies. In early times, there were 3 chief nations in the peninsula:
- Central portion – Etruscans (Aryan people who were great builders)
- South – Greek colonies
- North and other regions – tribes of Aryans and Greek colonies
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Roman Innovations
Romans were innovative in constructing new technologies and inventing new materials. Amphitheaters, Triumphant arches, Basilicas, Public baths, and aqueducts are great illustrations of inventions of Roman architecture that were engineering marvels. Along with the innovative construction techniques, they are also an inspiration for how the materials bring great results that can expand their lifespan. Overall, Roman architecture is the architecture, particularly of cities.
Columns in Roman Architecture
In addition to the three Greek orders, the Romans added two different orders.
- Tuscan Order
- It is a simplified Doric type of order with a plain base, an unputed column, and no decorations other than moldings.
- Composite Order
- Composite order combines elements of both Ionic and Corinthian orders. It is modified by superimposing ionic vaults, set on four sides diagonally, and decorated with acanthus leaves.
Concrete
Romans created a revolution in architectural design with the discovery of slow-drying concrete. Romans used a form of concrete opus caementicium, which was a thick mortar laid with bands of brick. It was a mixture of stones, aggregates, lime mortar, pozzolana, and water.
Earlier days, they invented four types of wall systems using concrete:
- “opus incertum ”: was a concrete wall faced with irregular pieces of stone.
- “opus reticulatum ” was a concrete wall with joints laid diagonal lines & patterns. (resembles a mesh)
- “opus testaceum” – walling was faced with bricks, triangular on plan, and usually 1.5 inches thick.
- “Opus mixtum” Concrete wall faced with bands of tufa stone in between brick facing.
Arch and Vault
Arches stand as a victory of achievements by the Romans in military campaigns to show power. Decorated with relief sculptures and inscriptions of significant events in military victories. The largest surviving example of the triumphal arch is the Arch of Constantine captures Constantine’s victory.
There were two kinds of vaults majorly:
- The semicircular or waggon-headed vault.
- Cross Vault
Dome
The Romans were the first to build domes for interior spaces in the history of architecture. Domes generated well-defined and large interior spaces which were primarily seen in Temples, Basilicas, Public baths, and palaces. They replaced traditional post and lintel construction.
Aqueducts
Romans built tunnels and bridges to bring water to the cities. For this, they had to capture streams, had to lay tunnels through the hills, and lift the aqueducts over valleys and bounding arcades. Rome had fourteen aqueducts, totaling over 265 miles (426.5 km) in length, which delivered 200 million gallons of water to the city every day.
Materials and Architectural Features
Materials Used in Roman Architecture
Stone, Brick, and concrete were primarily used materials in Roman Architecture.
- Stone – Colored marble and travertine limestone are the main stones used for theatres and temples. Travertine limestone was used for the façade of the Colosseum.
- Brick – Sun-dried mud bricks were replaced with fired clay bricks by Romans. The bricks were made in different sizes and shapes – square, rectangle, circle, and triangle. They were not only used for walls but also as facing for concrete.
- Concrete – Concrete replaced brick as the primary building material. In the earlier years, Roman builders incorporated brick or stone as an outer covering, and later they used regular square bricks.
Architectural Features
- Roofs – Truss roofs over 30m can be seen in the rectangular spaces of the monumental buildings of Rome.
- Spiral stairs – Romans introduced spiral stairs – a type of stairway with a complex helical structure.
- Mosaics – Colorful fragments of stone combined with cement.
- Hypocaust – Hot air was used to heat houses typically a system of underfloor heating. They were mainly used in public baths and houses.
Urban Planning
In early Roman cities, the street network was forming irregular rectangles. At the heart of the old cities, was the forum, the temple of Jupiter,- lined with loggias and civic buildings. The city of Rome comprises Amphitheaters, Basilicas, Baths, Forums, Theatres, Circuses, Temples, and camps.
Later extensions gave rise to regular grid-like streets, similar to that of the city of Pompeii. Towns were developed using orthogonal planning as the basis of laying a city and made this the basis for army camps. The main public place in Roman cities was enclosed by city offices, and one or more basilicas.
Forums of Roman Architecture
Each Roman city had at least one Forum that functioned as a marketplace where each one of them admired a significant military achievement and was dedicated to God. It was also a place for significant social gatherings, diverse activities, and other public meetings. Forums would have a temple of Jupiter at North, as well as the Basilica. And surrounded by porticos, colonnades, public buildings, etc., that were adorned with pillars of victory and statues of great men.
The Forums of Roman architecture were not only attractive but also designed for utilitarian purposes. The great hall of the markets has a series of shops, attic windows, vaults, and lifted ceilings.
Plan of the Forum, Pompeii, Italy
The main public space or forum was rectangular with the temple of Jupiter at the north end and was enclosed by curia(city offices) on the south side. The other two sides of the Forum of Pompeii were flanked by other buildings – the Basilica, sanctuary, Granary, buildings where legal cases were heard as well as other smaller temples and public buildings.
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Infrastructure
Just like the Greeks, Romans developed orthogonal grid planning in the planning of the cities and constructed roads, markets, bridges, dams, canals, aqueducts, etc. which became a part of majestic Roman architecture.
- Roads – Roads were built for the expansion and development of the Roman Empire. They were means of internal carriers of trade goods and communications. The movement of armies and officials was an efficient way across other countries.
- Market streets – Streets with polygonal masonry are the main characteristics of Roman street design.
- Aqueducts – A large number of Aqueducts were constructed during Roman times to carry water from distant sources to internal cities supplying both public facilities and private households. They were constructed with a downward gradient allowing water to flow through gravity.
- Bridges – Roman bridges were large and long-lasting built with stone and semi-circular arches as supporting members. A few of the bridges were concrete as well. They have also introduced segmental arches for the construction of bridges.
- Canals – Canals were for multiple purposes – irrigation, navigation, flood control, drainage, and land reclamation.
- Dams – Dams served as multiple-purpose structures – irrigation, river diversion, and soil retention. Two common types of dams were earth-filled and masonry gravity dams.
- Defensive walls – Major cities and towns were fortified with walls of massive and irregular polygonal blocks.
Architecture and Building Types of Roman Architecture:
Amphitheaters
Amphitheaters are the major types of buildings constructed by Romans. They were elaborate structures with arcaded facades and decorated with materials like marble, stucco, and statuary. Most of them are preserved (over 200 are known) and are used for contests for armed combatants, public displays, meetings, and bullfights. They were semicircular, wherein the larger ones were designed for horse racing events, and the smaller ones were designed mainly for footraces and athletics. The larger one can accommodate 40,000-60,000 spectators.
Basilicas
Basilicas were public meeting places where business meetings and legal matters were transacted. It was functioning as a multipurpose town hall that was used as courts for magistrates, official ceremonies, etc. Later, when Christianity became the official religion, the basilicas were functioning as churches.
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Temples
The Roman temples express the distinct Roman culture, though only a few temples survive even today. The temple comprises a platform (on which the temple rests), a main room to house the deity, a portico with columns and a triangular pediment above, an altar (to perform an offering to the deity, and other storage rooms.
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Domestic Architecture (Villas)
Roman Villa and Domus were for the upper class and wealthy sections of society. There were different kinds of villas such as villas for pleasure palaces, villas situated on picture sites, country houses, and suburban villas which were located on the edges of cities. Few of them were lavishly decorated and had mosaic floors.
Suburban villas illustrate the ancient Roman culture and heritage, also representing seats of power.
Roman Baths (Thermae) – Public Baths
The popular building types of the Romans were public baths -Roman Baths known as Thermae. Most of the houses were not provided with running water. They were important not only for social and practical needs but also for various architectural experiments conducted on them. The baths varied from small scale to larger scale for wealthier sections and they had different spaces both for men and women, dressing rooms, pools, gymnasia, relaxing spaces, and heating systems.
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Theaters
Roman Theaters were derived from Greek models. Roman theaters were close to the business centers of the city, unlike the Greek theaters that were on hillsides. They were semi-circular in shape with a half-circle orchestra. The stage was initially decorated with rows of columns and sculptural decorations. The seats were inclined on concrete barrel vaults supported by stone piers.
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Amphitheaters of Roman Architecture
The Colosseum (70-80 CE)
The Colosseum (70-80 CE) is an oval-shaped Amphitheatre (189 meters long, 156 meters wide, and 48.5 meters tall) located in the center of the city of Rome. The foundation pit with concrete was 167 ft wide and 40 ft deep. Concrete and brick were used to build underground areas, whereas wood, bricks, and lighter concrete were used for upper levels. The rest of the building was from masonry and the top level of seats rested on wooden supports.
The plan included long ramps, pathways, and staircases. Decorative bronze shields hung from the top story of the Colosseum. Columns on the first floor in Doric, the second floor in Ionic, third floor in Corinthian orders; Arches, and supporting barrel vaults form the three-story façade that is huge and magnificent in Roman Architecture. There were eight entrances at the ground level. A large canvas that covered the entire structure protected the interior from the bright sun and large luminaires at night.
It is so huge that it could hold more than 50,000 people. The seating was arranged in hierarchical order. It is home to both the achievements and violence of Roman society.
Amphitheatre of Pompeii (70 BCE)
The Amphitheatre of Pompeii (the earliest amphitheater of Roman architecture) is known for its greatest survival period. It was constructed using stone around 70 BCE. The lower entrances for higher-class citizens were designed to provide a unique viewing experience. As they entered the amphitheater, they would be struck by the bright beams of light and the loud cheers of the crowd. This created an exciting and dramatic atmosphere.
Basilicas of Roman Architecture
In Roman architecture, a basilica was a long rectangular building placed near the forum. It usually had a colonnade (two or four column rows that resulted in three or five aisles) inside, with a rounded projection at one or both ends, where the judges would sit. In the center of the rounded projection, there would be an altar to honor the emperor’s spiritual presence. Only in his symbolic presence could legal cases be heard.
Trajas’s Basilica (98 CE)
Also known as the Basilica of Ulpia, it was an ancient civic building located in the Forum of Trajan. It was a fine example of a building built with a wooden roof.
The building had a large middle section that was 87 feet wide. On either side of it were two smaller sections that were 23 feet 9 inches wide each. The entire building, excluding the curved parts at the ends, was 385 feet long. The building was quite tall, reaching about 120 feet in height. The columns on the lower level that separated the middle section from the smaller sections were made of red granite. They had white marble Corinthian capitals on top.
At each end of the building, there were curved sections called apses. Apses could be reached by steps. In front of each apse, there was an altar for religious rituals. There were also elevated areas over the smaller sections, which could be reached by climbing steps.
Basilica of Maxentius (312 CE)
Formerly known as the temple of peace, the Basilica of Maxentius consisted of a rectangular central nave (265 ft by 83ft) between the piers (120ft height) covered by three groin vaults. To the north and south are aisles with three large semicircular roofs, each 76 feet wide. These roofs are supported by walls that are placed at right angles to the main section of the building.
The walls have openings that connect them, and along with the weight of the roofs, they help support the central section. There are large columns attached to the walls, which hold up parts of the decorative structure from which the arched roofs emerge. There were two apses – one to the north and the other to the west.
Temples of Roman Architecture
The Roman temples express the distinct Roman culture, though only a few temples survive even today. The temple comprises of
- The main room houses the deity to whom the temple is dedicated.
- The platform on which the temple rests was typically higher.
- A portico with columns and a triangular pediment above.
- The classical orders -mainly Corinthian and composite were seen in the columns of Roman temples.
- A small altar to perform an offering to the deity.
- Rooms for storage of temple equipment.
Maison Carree (117-138 CE)
Maison Carree is also called the square house because of its clear rectangular geometry. It is one of the preserved temples of Roman architecture with its emphatic front, high base, and columns. This temple rises on a podium of 2.85m high and has a rectangular plan of 26.42×13.54m. Six Corinthian columns and a triangular pediment with a deep portico embrace the façade of the temple.
Pantheon (120-124 CE)
The Pantheon is a fine example of Roman architecture that symbolized the Roman enclosure of space along with their achievements in construction. It was a temple to all Gods. The concrete technology, the clear geometry that assumes universal significance, and the huge scale, stand as evidence of human creativity.
The Pantheon was built using concrete of varying densities and a model of the heavenly dome (Romans imagined earth as a disk covered by a heavenly dome). With a pedimented portico (with sixteen Corinthian columns) in the front, the main building is cylindrical, where the diameter of the rotunda is equal to the maximum height of the dome. The coffered dome measures 142.5 ft in diameter, and the main source of natural light is its central oculus. Its beams of light slowly creep from the top to the marble floor and then to the wall, marking out the cycles of the sun.
Domestic Architecture (Villas)
The Dwellings of Roman architecture can be divided into three main types:
- The Domus (private house)
- Villa (country house)
- Insula (multi-storied tenement)
Here are two examples of the Domus.
Domus Aurea Rome (64-68CE)
Domus Aurea (Nero’s Palace) also known as the “Golden House” was built by Emperor Nero in the heart of ancient Rome after a great fire in 64 AD. It was a complex of interconnected geometric volumes with a huge number of rooms. Roman art of construction is evident in this palace which is evident in the distinct types of vaults (octagonal, barrel vaults) and domes. Many rooms were illuminated by ingenious oculus windows and reflecting walls.
House of Pansa, Pompeii, Italy
The house of Pansa is known to be the largest house of the orthogonal grid planning that filled the entire block. It is a typical example of a Roman townhouse and is surrounded by contiguous smaller houses and shops open to the street. It had a symmetrical floor plan, where the entrance was connected to a large public room- the atrium. With a pitched roof sloping inward, the atrium was open to the sky. Next to the atrium on the axis, there was a principal public room called tablinium, which was screened by draperies. Beyond tablinium, there was an open court (peristyle) with a colonnade. Cubicles surrounded the peristyle open court.
Public Baths of Roman Architecture
Roman baths (Thermae) were used much more than simple washing. They had functions combined with a modern health club, library, and school. The biggest baths had almost all the facilities which included shops, restaurants, libraries, gardens, etc. Their plans of general arrangement was in three parts – a great central block (consisted of various types of bathing facilities), a large open space (stadia for races), and an outer ring of apartments.
The central block consisted of different rooms:
- Apodyteria–dressing room.
- Sudatorium-sweat room, rubbing with oil.
- Tepidarium–warm bath.
- Frigidarium–cold bath.
- Calidarium–oils and perfumes room and warm water.
- Palestra –reception .
Baths of Caracalla (212–235 CE)
One of the finest examples of huge and elaborate baths of Roman architecture was the Baths of Caracalla (212–216 CE). It was the largest of all Roman baths where 1600 bathers of one gender could easily accommodate. A sense of luxury was expressed with astonishing engineering creativity and ornately decorated interiors. Beautiful mosaics, marble, and sculptures adorn the walls and floors of the Baths of Caracalla. It also contained shops, restaurants, exercise yards, libraries, lecture halls, and reading rooms surrounded by spacious gardens filled with sculptures.
Baths of Diocletian (302 CE)
The Tepidarium was 200 feet long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet high, and was covered with quadripartite vaulting of tufa concrete,
springing from eight monolithic columns of granite, 50 feet high and 5 feet in diameter, having Composite and
Corinthian capitals of white marble each supporting a portion of highly ornamental entablature.
Theaters
Unlike Greek theaters, Roman theaters were semicircular and had a half-circle orchestra where senators often sat.
Theater of Marcellus (23-13BCE)
The theatre of Marcellus (23-13BCE) is a fine example of a typical semicircular theatre of Roman architecture. The facade is semicircular and built with travertine. It has two tiers of arches: a lower tier with Doric columns and an upper tier with Ionic columns. The seats were placed on a system of curved and slanted concrete vaults supported by stone columns. Between these columns, some stairs and ramps led to the seating areas.
Roman Theatre of Aspendos (155 CE)
The Theater of Aspendos (155 CE) is famous for its great sound and beautiful decorations. The two-story stage building is especially impressive and has been well maintained, just like the rest of the theaters. It was constructed on a hillside, with seating that extended outward from the hillside. The seating is supported by vaults and arcades.
Conclusion
Roman Architecture, thus provided the most magnificent and impressive buildings that have stood for centuries together, thus turning architecture into art forms. The use of materials – concrete, brick, and construction techniques of arches, vaults, and domes have an enormous impact and influence on architecture even today.
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